In chapter 5 Michael Sandel introduces the important theories of Immanuel Kant who lived from 1724-1804. Kant challenged the concept of utilitarianism which treats people as a means to an end to achieve the maximum utility. Kant argues that people are rational beings capable of reason, and as such deserve respect and should be treated as an end in themselves.
Freedom
With this thought, we must also then consider his framing of freedom. He describes freedom as “autonomy” from desires, preferences, biological determination, or social conditioning outside of yourself. Where our decisions are not free Kant made up the word “heteronomoy.” Sandel uses the scenario of ice cream to show us the difference of acting heteronomously. It may seem like the decision between flavors is our own but it’s not! We didn’t choose our preference of one flavor over another.
How can we act autonomously? By simply having a preference of one action over another, can we ever achieve autonomy? Would making a decision against our preferences be considered autonomy? My example: it is very cold outside and I don’t want to be cold so I will put my boots on. My preference is for warmth so my action is not free, heteronomy. If I go against my preference for warmth and wear sandals is this autonomy? Kant claims on page 107 that “happiness contributes nothing whatsoever toward the establishment of morality.” Is there room for happiness in Kant’s philosophy?
Sandel sums up this concept of freedom in one important sentence at the bottom of page 109. “To act freely is not to choose the best means to a given end; it is to choose the end itself, for its own sake-a choice that humans beings can make and billiard balls (and most animals) cannot.”
Here is a comedy sketch about acting against our preferences.
Kids in the Hall - Bathroom Support Group
Reason
Where does our freedom, the capability of opposing a law forced on us, come from? It comes from our ability to reason, Kant said, which determines our will, separate from our nature and inclination. Kant's definition of reason is much different from that of other definitions at that time. The utilitarian definitions of reason describe it as being able to maximize utility by satisfying desires we happen to have. We can see immediately that this contradicts Kant's freedom.
Thomas Hobbes called reason the "scout for the desires," and David Hume called it the "slave of the passions." If reason were as simple as that then we would be better off with instinct, Kant said.
Kant recognizes that as long as we are able to act freely then it must prove that we are acting with reason.
Kant made the claim that because all human beings are capable of reason that we must therefore treat each other with dignity. What is our duty to animals who are not capable of reason?
Morality
Kant’s explanation of morality is easier to understand. Kant said that the morality of a person can be judged not by the outcome of their efforts or even the decision they have made but rather the motive behind that decision. You could make the right decision but for the wrong reasons. He claimed that only the actions made out of the “motive of duty” have moral worth.
Sandel questions the moral worth of deeds done out of compassion, like our service project. It is hard to tell if our volunteer work has moral worth because 1) we are compelled to do it for class. How many of us would be volunteering otherwise? 2) are we acting out of compassion? If so Kant said the compassion of the altruist (altruist being the devotion and interest in the welfare of others) “deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem.”
There is a complicated system for donating organs where a recipient has a family member willing to donate but isn’t a match. This system pairs compatible healthy donors with a person in need of an organ who does match. By willingly donating an organ, their loved one receives an organ in operations involving up to five transplant at once! Does the decision of the donor to give an organ lack moral worth when we look at the motive?
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